Anatomical terminology and general principles of physiology
What are the planes of section that divide body into: left and right; front and back; up and down?
What do the following pairs of positional terms mean: proximal and distal, medial and lateral, dorsal and ventral, superior and inferior, contralateral and ipsilateral, superficial and deep?
Explain the terms that describe locations/parts of the body: cervical, cranial, brachial, antebrachial, femoral, cutaneous/subcutaneous, sacral, gluteal, thoracic, dorsal
What are the properties of the “anatomical position”?
Describe negative feedback loop components and explain what it does.
Define homeostasis.
List common medical imaging techniques and briefly describe how each one works.
Chemistry, biochemistry and cell biology
Explain why the formation of a chemical bond (giving away an electron, picking up an electron or sharing electrons) makes an atom more stable.
What chemical characteristics do acids and bases have (what does each release in solution)?
What is produced during hydrolysis of a: fat (triglyceride), protein, starch?
List the types of monomers that are used to make: proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids.
What are the names of bonds between monomers in the above polymers?
Define “hydrophobic” and “hydrophilic” chemicals and give an example of each.
What are “hypertonic”, “isotonic” and “hypotonic” solutions? Which one do human cells prefer to be in and why? What is osmosis? What is “crenation”?
What are the names of nucleotide DNA is made from? Which nucleotide pairs with which?
What are the structures and functions of the following cellular organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, centrosome, Golgi complex, ribosomes, cilia and flagella?
Explain the terms “transcription”, “translation” and “replication” – what is produced during each?
What chemicals are cells membranes made from?
List the stages of mitosis and explain what happens during each stage (to chromosomes, centrioles, nuclear membrane and cell membrane).
What is cytokinesis?
How do the cells produced as a result of mitosis compare to the parent cell?
Explain the differences in mitosis and meiosis: which one is used to make identical cells and which one is used to make gametes?
Tissues
Explain the structure, function and location of the following connective tissues: dense regular, dense irregular, adipose, areolar, hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, bone, blood.
Explain the classification of epithelia based on cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional) and based on number of layers (simple, stratified and pseudostratified).
Compare the structure of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissues (length of cell, number of nuclei, voluntary control, presence intercalated discs).
Give a specific example of where you can find each of 3 types of muscle tissue.
List the names of cells, found in different tissues, such as chondrocytes, adipocytes, keratinocytes etc..
Integumentary system
Name all functions of the skin.
Skin = epidermis + dermis. Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) connects skin to underlying structures (muscle, bone). Which tissues is each layer made of?
What are the regions of dermis and which tissues do they contain?
List the layers of epidermis in proper order from superficial to deep.
Which layer is called “stratum germinativum”?
What types of cells can you find in the skin? What is the main cell type in the epidermis?
Which pigments affect the color of skin and hair?
Describe the structure of hair and name all layers that make up the hair: which one is the deepest and which one is the most superficial?
Explain which chemicals can penetrate skin easily and which cannot and why.
Bones
What are main types of bones in human body? Give an example of each type!
Describe the structure of a long bone (diaphysis, metaphyses, epiphyses, articular cartilages, epiphyseal plates or epiphyseal lines, medullary cavity, bone marrow, periosteum and endosteum)
What are epiphyseal plates made from and what is their role in bone growth?
What are fontanelles and where can you find them?
Explain the process of endochondral and intramembranous ossification.
Explain microscopic structure of compact bone. What are the components of osteon and their functions: lamellae, central canal with nerves and blood vessels, lacunae, canaliculi, perforating canals, osteocytes?
Name the types of cells found in bone tissue (osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteogenic cells) and explain the function of each.
What are the effects of PTH (parathyroid hormone) and calcitonin on bone and how are these hormones regulated?
What is the effect of physical exercise and estrogens on bone strength?
Which vitamins are important for bone homeostasis?
What is osteoporosis and what can cause it?
List the markings (features) of select bones (some of the ones we studied in the lab!): scapula, ulna, radius, humerus, femurs, coxal bone (ilium, ischium and pubis), temporal, mandible, ethmoid, occipital, vertebrae.
Name which joints the above bones make.
In which bone has sella turcica and what is located in it?
Which bone markings are commonly used for muscle attachments?
Explain what each type of bone marking is, for example: “foramen”, “notch”, “tubercle”, “condyle” etc.
What is a sesamoid bone and where can you find it?
List and describe pathological bends (deviations) of the spinal column.
List the bones of axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
Muscles and joints
Explain the structure of a skeletal muscle as an organ: tendons, epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, endomysium, muscle fibers –what are the functions of these components?
Describe the structure of a myofibril and sarcomere and indicate the functions of the following protein components: actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin, titin.
What gives skeletal muscles striated appearance?
What are cross-bridges and how do they form?
Where are the following parts of the sarcomere located: Z-disc, H-zone, A-band, I-band, M-line?
Explain how parts of a sarcomere move during contraction.
Explain the functions of the following structures of skeletal muscle cell: motor end plate, Ach-receptor (AchR), acetylcholineesterase enzyme (AchE), T-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, sarcolemma.
What is the role of calcium ions in the function of myofibrils?
Explain how the electrical impulse travels from the motor neuron and through the muscle cell – what parts of the cell does it pass through?
Which ions are involved in an action potential and which way do they go through membrane?
Describe structure and function of a neuromuscular junction (NMJ).
Function of muscles and joints: what is effort, load and resistance?
What are agonist, antagonist and prime mover muscles? What is insertion and origin of a muscle?
Explain how a muscle can be named and give examples.
Name the types of joints based on structure (fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial) and give examples of each one.
Explain classification of joints based on mobility (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis and diarthrosis) and give examples.
Describe the components of a synovial joint: capsule, articular cartilage, synovial fluid, synovial membrane, ligaments etc.. What is the function of each of those parts?
What is a difference between a ligament, a tendon and an aponeurosis?
Explain (and demonstrate!) the following joint movements: supination, pronation, adduction, abduction, circumduction, rotation, flexion, extension, elevation, depression, inversion, eversion, opposition.
List some diseases of joints – types of arthritis. What causes osteoarthritis?
Nervous system and sensory organs
List the types of neuroglia and explain what each type does.
Where can you find CSF, what is its function and how is it produced?
Name 3 meninges in proper order, from superficial to deep.
Describe the phases of action potential in a neuron: depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization. Which ions are involved in each and how do they move?
What are the functions of the following CNS regions: cerebellum, cerebrum (hemispheres, gyri, sulci), medulla, oblongata, pons, midbrain (corpora quadrigemina), diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)?
Which regions are parts of the brain stem?
What are the functions of motor areas, sensory areas and associative areas in cerebral cortex?
What are the roles of: limbic system, reticular formation, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area?
Describe the structure of spinal cord; white and gray matter, motor neurons, ascending and descending tracts, spinal nerves.
Name 12 cranial nerves and describe briefly what each innervates.
What do the terms “somatic” and “autonomic” mean?
What types of structures does the ANS control? What about SNS?
What are the events during “fight or flight” (stress) response?
Name 3 “tunics” of the eye (fibrous, vascular and neural) and describe what type of structures they make (cornea, sclera, choroid, ciliary body, iris, retina).
Describe the structure and function of the lens.
Which structure regulates the amount of light entering the eye?
Compare rods and cones photoreceptor based on what they do and their location on the retina.
Explain the structures of the ear: outer ear, tympanic membrane, middle ear (ossicles), inner ear (bony labyrinth, membranous labyrinth), cochlea, vestibule, semi-circular canals.
